fase 1 · sintesi onesta
Attraverso le diverse tradizioni, l'amore è costantemente identificato come un fondamentale riorientamento lontano dall'ego isolato, sia che venga inquadrato come un meccanismo neurobiologico per la sopravvivenza condivisa, come una spinta volitiva per il benessere altrui, o come un rigoroso veicolo spirituale per la realizzazione divina. Tuttavia, queste tradizioni divergono nettamente sul fatto che l'amore sia in definitiva un'utilità biologica ancorata alla conservazione genetica, un'ascesa intellettuale astratta che trascende la personalità individuale, o una relazione eterna e profondamente personale con uno specifico amato o Creatore.
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fase 2
mappa delle tradizioni
Buddhismo Theravada
religionColtivato come metta (benevolenza illimitata) e karuna (compassione per la sofferenza), l'amore è una rigorosa disciplina meditativa piuttosto che un'emozione fugace. Questi stati incommensurabili agiscono come antidoti diretti alle impurità mentali come l'odio e l'invidia. In definitiva, servono come solida base per realizzare la natura impermanente dei fenomeni, guidando il praticante verso il Nibbana (liberazione suprema).
figure: Buddhaghosa, Il Buddha
fonti: Visuddhimagga, Karaniya Metta Sutta
Sufismo islamico
mysticalLo scopo ultimo dell'esistenza umana è Ishq-e-Haqiqi (Amore Divino), una fiamma consumante che bypassa interamente la logica umana e brucia l'ego. Questa realizzazione è spesso catalizzata attraverso Ishq-e-Majazi (amore terreno), che spoglia gli attaccamenti mondani e i rigidi condizionamenti. Il percorso culmina in Fana (annientamento del sé) e Baqa (sussistenza eterna in Dio) sotto la dottrina metafisica di Wahdat al-Wujud (unicità dell'essere).
figure: Jalaluddin Rumi, Fariduddin Attar, Shams-e Tabriz
fonti: Mathnawi, Divan-i Kabir, La storia dello Sceicco San'an
Neuroscienze
scienceIl legame di coppia a lungo termine e l'amore passionale sono estensioni evolutive di antichi meccanismi di attaccamento materno, che si basano su circuiti neurochimici condivisi per stabilire una preferenza sociale selettiva. Ciò è mediato dai nonapeptidi ossitocina (OXT) e arginina vasopressina (AVP) che interagiscono con il sistema dopaminergico di ricompensa nella via mesolimbica. L'amore funziona biologicamente per collegare la rappresentazione sensoriale di un partner o di un neonato con un'intensa ricompensa sociale, disattivando al contempo i centri della paura nell'amigdala.
figure: Larry J. Young, Sue Carter
fonti: Studi di neuroimaging umano tramite fMRI, Modelli comparativi di arvicola delle praterie
Platonismo
philosophyL'amore (eros) è una rigorosa ascesa epistemologica e spirituale nota come scala amoris (scala dell'amore). Partendo dall'attrazione fisica per un singolo corpo, la consapevolezza dell'amante si espande verso l'alto per riconoscere la bellezza superiore delle anime, delle istituzioni pubbliche e delle scienze. Il culmine di questo viaggio è la profonda comprensione della Forma Platonica della Bellezza, assoluta, separata ed eterna.
figure: Platone, Socrate, Diotima
fonti: Simposio
Biologia evoluzionistica
scienceL'amore e i comportamenti altruistici sono meccanismi evolutivi strategici guidati dalla parentela genetica e dal perseguimento della fitness inclusiva. Regolata dalla regola di Hamilton, la selezione parentale detta che atti apparentemente altruistici si evolvono perché assicurano la sopravvivenza e la propagazione dei geni condivisi. La selezione naturale favorisce quindi i tratti che influenzano positivamente il successo riproduttivo dei parenti, anche a costo della sopravvivenza del singolo organismo.
figure: Charles Darwin, W.D. Hamilton, John Maynard Smith, J.B.S. Haldane
fonti: L'origine delle specie
Visnuismo Chaitanya
religionIl culmine della vita spirituale è prema (amore puro), un amore incondizionato per il Signore Supremo Krishna, coltivato attraverso la rigorosa scienza teologica del rasa-tattva (scienza del gusto estetico). Questa disciplina strutturata mappa sistematicamente le relazioni trascendenti tra il devoto (asraya, il ricettacolo) e Krishna (visaya, l'oggetto), utilizzando stimoli specifici per risvegliare un'estasi latente. Attraverso questa coltivazione sistematica, i praticanti passano dagli attaccamenti materiali a un legame eterno di unione divina o servitù.
figure: Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Rupa Goswami
fonti: Rasa-shastras (scritture sui gusti estetici)
Ebraismo cabalistico
mysticalL'amore è fondamentalmente inteso come Chesed (benevolenza illimitata), il desiderio proattivo e sconfinato del Creatore di elargire bontà infinita, servendo come scintilla ontologica unilaterale che ha dato inizio al cosmo ex nihilo. Questa espansione infinita di forza vitale è troppo travolgente per un universo finito e deve essere bilanciata da Gevurah (contenimento) e armonizzata da Tiferet (compassione). In definitiva, le creature finite sono sostenute da questa benevolenza e sono chiamate a riparare le macchie spirituali emulandola attivamente.
figure: Isaac Luria, Rabbino Moshe Cordovero
fonti: Lo Zohar, Eitz Chaim, Tomer Devorah
Filosofia analitica della mente
philosophyL'amore è analizzato come una preoccupazione robusta, che rappresenta una spinta teleologica e volitiva fondamentale diretta al benessere dell'amato fine a se stesso. In questo quadro conativo, l'amore è costituito da stabili strutture motivazionali che modellano le preferenze e limitano la condotta per promuovere il benessere altrui. È rigorosamente distinto dall'essere un mero sentimento affettivo, una credenza cognitiva o un desiderio di unione d'identità.
figure: Harry Frankfurt, J. David Velleman, Neera Badhwar
fonti: Letteratura contemporanea di psicologia morale analitica
fase 3
punti di accordo
Schemi che ricorrono in più tradizioni indipendenti.
La perturbazione e il riorientamento dell'ego
Attraverso discipline disparate, l'amore richiede una dissoluzione o un superamento fondamentale dell'ego isolato e servile. Sia che venga mappato come la soppressione dei circuiti della paura e del giudizio nelle neuroscienze, l'annientamento del sé (Fana) nel sufismo o l'eliminazione rigorosa delle impurità mentali nel buddhismo Theravada, l'amore agisce come un profondo elemento di rottura del contenimento egoistico.
Sufismo islamico · Buddhismo Theravada · Neuroscienze
L'amore come disciplina attiva e spinta volitiva
Molteplici tradizioni rifiutano la nozione di amore come stato emotivo passivo e transitorio, caratterizzandolo invece come una disposizione attiva e coltivata o come una volontà strutturale. La filosofia analitica lo definisce come una spinta volitiva stabile per il benessere altrui, mentre sia il buddhismo Theravada che il visnuismo Chaitanya lo considerano una disciplina rigorosa e sistematica che richiede uno sforzo sostenuto.
Filosofia analitica della mente · Buddhismo Theravada · Visnuismo Chaitanya
La matrice fondamentale dell'esistenza
Sia le tradizioni mistiche che quelle biologiche identificano una forma di amore come forza generatrice fondamentale dei rispettivi universi. La Cabala vede Chesed come la scintilla ontologica che ha dato inizio al cosmo ex nihilo, mentre la biologia evoluzionistica pone la selezione parentale e la fitness inclusiva come il motore sottostante a tutto il comportamento sociale e alla sopravvivenza dei mammiferi.
Ebraismo cabalistico · Biologia evoluzionistica
fase 4
punti di netto disaccordo
Disaccordi onesti che non si riducono a "tutti i sentieri sono uno".
La teleologia dell'amato: individuo contro astrazione
Esiste un netto disaccordo sull'obiettivo finale dell'amore. Il platonismo vede i singoli amanti come gradini da trascendere nel perseguimento della Forma astratta della Bellezza, mentre la filosofia analitica insiste sul fatto che l'amore debba essere una preoccupazione robusta per il benessere dello specifico amato. Il visnuismo Chaitanya si concentra allo stesso modo interamente su una relazione eterna e specifica con un Dio personale. La posta in gioco qui riguarda il fatto che i singoli individui umani possiedano un valore intrinseco o siano meri strumenti per verità universali superiori.
Platonismo · Filosofia analitica della mente · Visnuismo Chaitanya
Il meccanismo dell'incondizionalità: essenza spirituale contro calcolo biologico
Le tradizioni sono in forte disaccordo sul fatto che l'amore possa essere veramente incondizionato. La biologia evoluzionistica riduce l'amore apparentemente altruistico alla regola di Hamilton, una matematica biologica della parentela genetica in cui l'amore non è mai veramente disinteressato ma serve geni condivisi. Al contrario, la metta del buddhismo Theravada e il Chesed della Cabala richiedono una benevolenza esplicitamente incondizionata e illimitata, completamente indipendente dal merito del destinatario o dall'utilità genetica. Questo determina se l'amore sia fondamentalmente un'utilità di sopravvivenza terrena o un assoluto morale trascendente.
Biologia evoluzionistica · Buddhismo Theravada · Ebraismo cabalistico
domande aperte
- In che modo gli individui sostengono concretamente un impegno volitivo per il benessere altrui, come definito dalla filosofia analitica, quando i substrati neurobiologici della passione come OXT e AVP fluttuano naturalmente?
- Può la benevolenza astratta e incondizionata della metta del Theravada coesistere veramente con le preferenze sociali altamente esclusive e selettive guidate dalla selezione parentale evolutiva?
- Se l'amore platonico e quello sufico richiedono in ultima analisi di trascendere gli attaccamenti terreni, l'intenso legame di coppia umano funge da catalizzatore essenziale o da persistente ostacolo biologico a questa ascesa?
fase 5
fonti
dossier di ricerca (8)
Metta and Karuna in the Pali Canon scholarly analysis
In the Theravada Buddhist tradition, *Mettā* (loving-kindness) and *Karuṇā* (compassion) represent the first two of the four *Brahmavihāras*—a term often translated as "Divine Abodes," "Sublime States," or the "Immeasurables". Cultivated alongside *Muditā* (sympathetic joy) and *Upekkhā* (equanimity), these states form the bedrock of interpersonal ethics and emotional transformation in Buddhism. Scholarly analysis of the Pali Canon grounds these concepts in primary texts like the *Karaniya Metta Sutta*, wherein the Buddha instructs practitioners to cultivate boundless, unconditional goodwill: "Even as a mother watches over and protects her child, her only child, so with a boundless mind should one cherish all living beings". The definitive systematic analysis of these states comes from the 5th-century scholar Buddhaghosa in his influential meditation manual, the *Visuddhimagga* (*Path of Purification*). Distinctive terminology separates the two states while highlighting their interconnectedness. *Mettā* stems from the Pali root *mitta* (friend) and is characterized as a selfless friendliness independent of another person's behavior. In the *Visuddhimagga*, Buddhaghosa notes that *mettā* has "the mode of friendliness for its characteristic" and that "its natural function is to promote friendliness". *Karuṇā*, by contrast, is understood in scholarship as *mettā* responding to the specific condition of pain. It is defined as the "heartfelt wish that sentient beings be free from suffering and the causes of suffering". While *mettā* wishes for the general happiness of beings, *karuṇā* focuses explicitly on alleviating their distress. Crucially, Theravada tradition does not view these merely as fleeting emotions, but as rigorous meditative cultivations (*bhavana*) that act as direct antidotes to mental defilements. *Mettā* and *karuṇā* are fundamentally incompatible with "anger, hatred, envy, and jealousy". When developed completely and paired with "right view," these divine abodes serve as a firm foundation for realizing the impermanent nature of phenomena, ultimately guiding the practitioner toward Nibbana—the true cessation of suffering.
Concept of Ishq-e-Haqiqi in Rumi and Attar poetry analysis
In Islamic Sufism, *Ishq-e-Haqiqi* (Divine or True Love) is regarded as the supreme spiritual force and the ultimate purpose of human existence. It represents the soul's innate yearning to reunite with its Creator. The tradition dictates that this pure state is often awakened through *Ishq-e-Majazi* (metaphorical or earthly love)—such as devotion to a spiritual guide or human beloved—which acts as a necessary preparatory stepping stone to strip away worldly attachments. Jalaluddin Rumi and Fariduddin Attar are foundational figures in articulating this mystical framework. Rumi’s *Mathnawi* and *Divan-i Kabir* serve as poetic maps of the soul's pursuit of God. His historical relationship with his spiritual mentor, Shams-e Tabriz, stands as a lived "experiment" within Sufism, demonstrating how the intense, metaphorical love for a master (*Ishq-e-Majazi*) ultimately dissolves the ego and culminates in the absolute realization of Divine Love. Similarly, Attar uses narrative allegory, such as *The Story of Sheikh San'an*, to illustrate how earthly infatuation and societal disgrace can strip away rigid religious conditioning to reveal a pure, transformative devotion to the Divine. Experiencing *Ishq-e-Haqiqi* is tied to several distinct Sufi concepts. The seeker must undergo *tazkiyah al-nafs* (purification of the soul) to conquer the *khudi* (ego). The culmination of this path of love is the dual state of *Fana* (complete annihilation of the individual self) and *Baqa* (eternal subsistence within God). This deeply aligns with the metaphysical doctrine of *Wahdat al-Wujud* (Unity of Being), the realization that only the Creator truly exists and all else is an illusion. Sufis assert that this love entirely bypasses human logic. Emphasizing its consuming power, Rumi describes *Ishq* as "that flame which, when it blazes up, burns away everything except the Everlasting Beloved". Encapsulating the total surrender required in *Ishq-e-Haqiqi*, Rumi writes in the *Mathnawi* (1:30): "The Beloved is all and the lover (but) a veil; the Beloved is living and the lover a dead thing".
Neurochemical substrates of long-term pair bonding and maternal attachment research
Within neuroscience, long-term romantic pair bonding and maternal attachment are understood to share deeply overlapping neurochemical circuits. The discipline posits that the mother-infant bond—driven by a persistent motivation to care for offspring—served as the "evolutionary antecedent for pair bonding". Consequently, both types of social connection rely heavily on the same neurobiological mechanisms to establish and maintain "selective social preference". The distinctive neurochemical terminology of this field centers on two nonapeptides: **oxytocin (OXT)** and **arginine vasopressin (AVP)**, along with their interaction with the mesolimbic **dopaminergic reward system**. OXT is critical for the onset of maternal responsiveness and positive affection, whereas AVP is closely tied to mate-guarding, territoriality, and attachment. These neuropeptides interact with dopamine receptors (D1 and D2) in the **nucleus accumbens (NAcc)** and **ventral tegmental area (VTA)**, effectively linking the sensory representation of a partner or infant with intense social reward. Concurrently, bonding decreases activation in the amygdala, reducing fear and promoting a sense of safety. Research in this tradition has been profoundly shaped by comparative animal models, most famously involving the **prairie vole** (*Microtus ochrogaster*). Unlike traditional laboratory rodents or the closely related, polygamous montane vole, prairie voles form lifelong, socially monogamous pair bonds. Foundational experiments led by neuroscientists like Larry J. Young and Sue Carter have demonstrated that manipulating these specific neurotransmitters—such as infusing or blocking OXT and AVP receptors—can either artificially induce or entirely prevent pair bonding. As noted in the literature, "in prairie voles, OXT facilitates pair‐bond formation through its interaction with dopamine release particularly in the nucleus accumbens". Human neuroimaging corroborates these findings. fMRI studies reveal that both maternal and passionate love heavily activate the VTA and NAcc while deactivating brain regions associated with negative social judgment. Ultimately, the evidence indicates "a shared neurobiological mechanism of maternal and passionate love with evolutionary roots," demonstrating that human intimacy borrows its chemical architecture directly from ancient mammalian parenting instincts.
The ladder of love in Plato's Symposium philosophical commentary
In the Greek philosophical tradition, particularly within Plato’s *Symposium* (c. 385 BCE), love (*eros*) is not viewed merely as a quest for romantic fulfillment, but as a rigorous epistemological and spiritual ascent. This framework is introduced by Socrates, who recounts the philosophical teachings of the priestess Diotima, the architect of the famous "ladder of love" or *scala amoris*. For Plato, love is a vehicle for moral and intellectual enlightenment that moves a person from vulgar, earthly desires to noble abstraction. Diotima outlines a distinct sequence of rungs on this ladder. The journey begins with physical attraction to a single beautiful body, which then broadens into a recognition and love for the physical beauty present in all bodies. Ascending further, the lover transcends carnality to recognize that the beauty of the soul is far superior to that of the flesh. As the lover's awareness expands, they learn to love the beauty found in human laws, public institutions, and subsequently the sciences and knowledge. The pinnacle of this ascent is the profound apprehension of the Platonic Form of Beauty (*auto to kalon*). Upon reaching this highest tier, the lover gazes upon a "vast sea of beauty", encountering Beauty itself, which Diotima describes as "absolute, separate, simple, and everlasting". Love is thus positioned as the ultimate bridge to the divine and the Good. Philosophical commentary continues to debate the implications of this hierarchy for interpersonal love. A common interpretation suggests that individual lovers are merely stepping stones that are eventually abandoned as the philosopher climbs toward abstraction. However, many contemporary scholars argue that Plato does not mandate discarding the individual; rather, ascending the *scala amoris* deepens the lover's appreciation of their partner as an earthly embodiment of a transcendent, universal beauty.
Evolutionary origins of altruism and kin selection in social mammals
Evolutionary biology approaches the origins of altruism not as a Darwinian paradox, but as a strategic evolutionary mechanism driven by genetic relatedness. Within this discipline, the prevailing view is that seemingly selfless behaviors—such as social mammals warning relatives of danger or foregoing reproduction to assist family members—evolve because they ultimately ensure the survival and propagation of shared genes. The theoretical foundation of this tradition traces back to Charles Darwin's *On the Origin of Species* (1859). Acknowledging the conundrum of sterile social insects, Darwin hypothesized that natural selection "may be applied to the family, as well as to the individual". In the mid-20th century, geneticists like J.B.S. Haldane captured the underlying logic of relatedness by famously joking that he would willingly die for two brothers or eight cousins. However, it was British evolutionary biologist W.D. Hamilton who formalized the mathematics of this behavior in the 1960s. Hamilton pioneered the concept of **inclusive fitness**, arguing that an organism's evolutionary success relies on two components: "direct fitness" (personal reproductive success) and "indirect fitness" (the reproductive success of genetic relatives). This principle is governed by **Hamilton's rule**, which stipulates that altruistic traits will evolve when the benefit to the recipient, multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness, is greater than the reproductive cost to the actor. In 1964, evolutionary biologist John Maynard Smith coined the distinctive term **kin selection** to describe this phenomenon. Modern biologists define kin selection as a process whereby natural selection "favours a trait due to its positive effects on the reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even when at a cost to the organism's own survival". While recent debates—most notably involving biologist E.O. Wilson—have questioned whether broader ecological factors are more pivotal than relatedness, kin selection remains a central paradigm. Systematic reviews of alternative evolutionary models routinely reveal that "interacting individuals are genetically related," effectively reaffirming Hamilton's foundational insight into social behavior.
Rasa-tattva and divine love in Chaitanya Vaishnavism scriptures
In Chaitanya (Gaudiya) Vaishnavism, the ultimate spiritual perfection is the attainment of *prema* (pure, unalloyed love) for the Supreme Lord, Krishna. The tradition positions *rasa-tattva*—the rigorous theological science of transcendental relationships, or divine "mellows"—as the ultimate framework for understanding the soul's eternal, loving bond with God. Far from mere sentimentality, the tradition treats devotion as a structured discipline; as modern analyses of the tradition emphasize, "Bhakti, as a spiritual science, should always be foremost to bhakti as emotionalism". The primary architect of this theological aesthetic was Rupa Goswami. Under the direct order of the tradition’s founder, Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Rupa Goswami was assigned the specific task of compiling the *rasa-shastras* (scriptures on rasa) to define and propagate the cultivation of *rasa-bhakti*. Through his extensive writings, he mapped out the spiritual hierarchy of human-divine relationships, establishing that "Rasa, or divine mellows, is remarkable and the most esoteric truth" and serves as the "culmination of the transcendental pastimes of Sri Krishna". The distinctive terminology of *rasa-tattva* adapts classical Indian aesthetic theory into a purely spiritual context. The experience of divine *rasa* is catalyzed by *vibhava* (the cause or basis of the ecstasy), which is subdivided into *alambana* (the foundational basis) and *uddipana* (the stimulants). Within *alambana*, there is the *asraya* (the devotee, who acts as the repository of love) and the *visaya* (Krishna, who is the sole object of this love). *Uddipana* refers to the elements that awaken the devotee's dormant love, such as Krishna's personal qualities, his sweet smile, or the sound of his flute. When this devotional love matures and is actively engaged, it manifests *anubhavas* (ecstatic bodily transformations like weeping or trembling). Through this systematic cultivation, practitioners learn to transition from material attachments to the eternal bliss of divine consorthood or servitude.
The attribute of Chesed in the Sefirot and its role in creation
In the Kabbalistic tradition of Judaism, *Chesed* (loving-kindness or boundless benevolence) is the fourth of the ten *Sefirot* (divine emanations) and the first of the seven lower, emotive attributes (*middot*). It is understood as the primary, expansive force through which God initiated the cosmos. Kabbalah posits that creation was a unilateral, *ex nihilo* act of divine love, independent of human merit. This metaphysical reality is anchored in the verse from Psalms 89:3, "Olam Chesed Yibaneh" ("The world is built on Chesed"). Conceptually, *Chesed* is the proactive desire of the Creator to bestow infinite goodness and vitality upon the universe. Several foundational texts and figures elaborate on this attribute: * **The Zohar:** The core text of Kabbalah anthropomorphically maps *Chesed* to the "right arm" of the Divine (Zohar I:22a). This symbolizes pure, unresisted outward extension and giving. * **Isaac Luria (The Arizal):** In the Lurianic text *Eitz Chaim*, Luria explains that *Chesed* is the root of all *hashpa'ah*—the spiritual influx or life-force that continuously descends to bless and sustain every level of creation. * **Rabbi Moshe Cordovero:** In his ethical-mystical work *Tomer Devorah*, Cordovero teaches that humans can repair spiritual blemishes and awaken divine mercy in the upper worlds by actively emulating *Chesed* through selfless giving. A distinctive structural concept in Kabbalah is that the infinite expansion of *Chesed* is too overwhelming for a finite universe to absorb. Therefore, it must be met by its polar opposite, *Gevurah* (restriction, discipline, or strict judgment), which acts as the "left arm". The dialectic between *Chesed* (unlimited giving) and *Gevurah* (containment) is harmonized by a third Sefirah, *Tiferet* (beauty or compassion). *Tiferet* tempers the infinite light so that finite creatures can receive God's benevolence without ceasing to exist. Ultimately, Kabbalah views *Chesed* not merely as an emotion, but as the foundational ontological spark of existence, acting as "the Divine will to bestow goodness without measure".
Theories of love as a robust concern for the beloved's well-being
Within the analytic philosophy of mind and moral psychology, love is frequently analyzed not merely as a transient feeling, but as a complex psychological state with specific intentionality. Within this tradition, the "robust concern" theory posits that love is fundamentally a teleological and volitional drive directed at the well-being of the beloved for their own sake. The most prominent champion of this view is Harry Frankfurt. In his 1999 work, Frankfurt defines love primarily in terms of the lover's will, arguing that love “is neither affective nor cognitive. It is volitional”. Rather than being defined by how a person feels or what they believe, love is constituted by the “more or less stable motivational structures that shape his preferences and that guide and limit his conduct”. Thus, the robust concern view characterizes love as a *conative* state—an active, committed orientation toward promoting the beloved's welfare, distinct from "union" theories which emphasize the merging of individual identities. However, this deeply volitional framework has faced significant pushback from other analytic philosophers who argue it misses essential phenomenological and interactive dimensions of love. J. David Velleman (1999) criticizes the robust concern view for rendering love "merely conative" by reducing it to a teleological aim. He provides the counterexample of a troublemaking relative whom one genuinely loves, even if one does not actively wish to promote their well-being or spend time with them. Similarly, Neera Badhwar (2003) points out a conceptual flaw in the teleological nature of Frankfurt's account: if love is solely defined by actively promoting another's welfare, it becomes mysterious how “we can continue to love someone long after death has taken him beyond harm or benefit”. Ultimately, while the robust concern theory successfully isolates the selfless, welfare-oriented motivational structure of love, debates within the philosophy of mind continue over whether this conative drive constitutes the essence of love, or if it is merely a secondary effect of other psychological mechanisms, such as the appraisal or bestowal of value.