etapa 1 · resum honest
Les tradicions convergeixen àmpliament en l'existència d'un fonament últim i incondicionat de la realitat, ja sigui conceptualitzat com a consciència infinita, un paisatge generador de multiversos o un substrat digital. No obstant això, divergeixen bruscament sobre si aquesta realitat última posseeix agència personal, intencionalitat i caràcter moral, contrastant un Creador deliberat amb lleis naturals impersonals, arquitectures cognitives o el buit no dual.
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etapa 2
mapa de tradicions
Filosofia analítica de la religió
philosophyEmplea la lògica modal i la semàntica dels mons possibles per avaluar l'existència d'un ésser màximament gran. Sosté que si és lògicament possible que existeixi un ésser amb excel·lència màxima, la lògica modal S5 dicta que ha d'existir en el món real. Tot i que no es considera una prova definitiva que forci la concessió de l'ateu, estableix amb rigor la permissibilitat racional de la creença teista.
figures: Alvin Plantinga, Sant Anselm, Norman Malcolm, Charles Hartshorne
fonts: La naturalesa de la necessitat (The Nature of Necessity)
Astrofísica moderna
scienceExplica l'ajustament fi cosmològic de l'univers mitjançant el Principi Antròpic combinat amb una hipòtesi de multivers. En lloc d'inferir un dissenyador teleològic a partir de l'estret rang de constants fonamentals, emmarca l'ajustament fi com un efecte de selecció observacional. Els observadors es troben naturalment en l'univers estadísticament rar capaç de sustentar vida complexa a través d'un paisatge infinit de la teoria de cordes.
figures: Brandon Carter, Stephen Hawking, C.B. Collins, Leonard Susskind
fonts: El principi cosmològic antròpic (The Anthropic Cosmological Principle)
Advaita Vedanta
philosophyPostula que el Brahman (realitat metafísica última de l'hinduisme) —existència pura, consciència i benaurança— és l'única realitat indivisible. L'experiència empírica d'un univers múltiple i material i d'un ego independent es considera una il·lusió generada per maya (poder il·lusori) i avidya (ignorància). L'alliberament espiritual es produeix quan l'Atman (essència individual) reconeix que no és gens diferent del Brahman absolut i incondicionat.
figures: Adi Shankara, Gaudapada
fonts: Upanixads, Bhagavad Gita, Brahma Sutres
Neuroteologia
scienceMapa els correlats neurals d'allò sagrat per comprendre els mecanismes biològics darrere de la unió mística amb la divinitat. Identifica l'Ésser Unitari Absolut (AUB) com un estat on la disminució de l'activitat en l'Àrea d'Associació d'Orientació del cervell dissol els límits espacials i el sentit del jo. Aquest canvi fisiològic genera una profunda experiència fenomenològica de tot el cervell d'una unitat infinita i indiferenciada.
figures: Andrew Newberg, Eugene d'Aquili, Mario Beauregard, Michael Persinger
Lògica budista (Pramanavada)
philosophyRebutja enèrgicament l'existència d'un déu creador etern i omnipotent (Ishvara) mitjançant una deducció epistemològica sistemàtica. Argumenta que una entitat permanent i immutable no pot lògicament causar o interactuar amb un univers dinàmic i impermanent sense experimentar un canvi ella mateixa. La realitat, en canvi, està ancorada en l'originació depenent i la llei natural del karma.
figures: Dharmakīrti, Nāgārjuna
fonts: Pramāṇavārttika
Budisme Vajrayana
mysticalRefuta la noció d'un creador extern, explicant els orígens còsmics mitjançant la complexa interacció del karma col·lectiu i els vents elementals. Les deïtats teistes no es veuen com a creadors literals de l'univers, sinó com a metàfores autocreades per a qualitats interiors utilitzades en les pràctiques de visualització. L'alliberament espiritual depèn de la realització directa de la buidor (sunyata) per tallar la ignorància personal, en lloc de rebre la gràcia divina.
figures: Pundarika
fonts: Kalachakra Tantra, Vimalaprabhā
Teoria de la simulació
philosophySuggereix que la realitat física és un patró funcional d'informació que s'executa en un mitjà computacional, un concepte conegut com a independència del substrat. Sota aquest marc, l'univers és un sistema dissenyat artificialment supervisat per una civilització post-humana avançada o Simulador. Això proporciona un mecanisme tecnològic per al disseny intel·ligent, reempaquetant el concepte d'un creador omnipotent en un enginyer de programari còsmic.
figures: Nick Bostrom, David Pearce, Melvin Vopson, Rich Terrile
fonts: Viu vostè en una simulació per ordinador? (Are You Living in a Computer Simulation?)
Sufisme
mysticalArticula la doctrina ontològica de Wahdat al-Wujud (unitat de l'ésser), ensenyant que Déu és la realitat absoluta i singular i que el cosmos no té existència independent. Les diverses creacions són fonamentalment diferents miralls que reflecteixen la mateixa Font Divina a través de la seva pròpia manifestació. La realització espiritual és el reconeixement epistèmic que l'existència independent d'un mateix és una il·lusió, ja que només Déu existeix realment.
figures: Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi
fonts: Fusus al-Hikam, Al-Futuhat al-Makkiyah, Kitāb al-Jalāla
Cabala
mysticalEnsenya que la realitat última, anterior a la creació, és l'Ein Sof (l'infinit), un no-res infinit tan absolut que transcendeix tota comprensió i forma humana. Per crear un cosmos finit, l'Infinit es va sotmetre a una contracció divina (Tzimtzum) per deixar espai per a l'emanació de deu Sefirot (atributs divins), que actuen com a infraestructura espiritual que connecta el Creador incognoscible amb el món material. Aquests recipients permeten que la humanitat interactuï dinàmicament amb l'energia divina sense ser aniquilada per la infinitat absoluta.
figures: Shimon bar Yochai, Moisès de Lleó, Isaac Luria
fonts: Zohar, Tikuné Zohar
etapa 3
on coincideixen
Patrons que es repeteixen en múltiples tradicions independents.
La il·lusió del jo separat
Múltiples tradicions coincideixen que la percepció quotidiana d'un jo independent i separat és una distorsió fonamental de la realitat. Ja sigui superant la 'maya' cognitiva, travessant el vel per veure la 'Wahdat al-Wujud' o dissolent neurològicament els límits espacials en l'Àrea d'Associació d'Orientació, la realitat s'experimenta finalment com una unitat indiferenciada.
Advaita Vedanta · Sufisme · Neuroteologia
Emanació i manifestació per sobre de la creació ex nihilo
Els sistemes místics descriuen repetidament l'univers no com un artefacte construït del no-res per un constructor extern, sinó com una extensió directa, contracció o manifestació de l'essència divina mateixa.
Cabala · Sufisme
La necessitat d'una escala infinita
Per explicar l'existència i les condicions precises de la nostra realitat, les tradicions convergeixen en la necessitat d'un substrat subjacent funcionalment infinit, ja sigui la llum interminable de l'Ein Sof, un paisatge infinit de la teoria de cordes de multiversos o un poder computacional il·limitat.
Cabala · Astrofísica moderna · Teoria de la simulació
etapa 4
on discrepen radicalment
Desacords honestos que no es redueixen a la idea que "tots els camins són un de sol".
Creador intencional vs. forces impersonals
La filosofia analítica i la teoria de la simulació postulen un arquitecte deliberat amb intencionalitat (un 'ésser màximament gran' o un 'Simulador'). En contrast, la lògica budista i l'Advaita Vedanta argumenten que atribuir una creació intencional a l'absolut viola la coherència lògica, emmarcant la realitat com el resultat d'un karma impersonal, de l'originació depenent o d'una existència no dual. El que està en joc és si la humanitat deu obediència moral a un ésser suprem o ha de dependre totalment de l'autorealització interna.
Filosofia analítica de la religió · Teoria de la simulació · Lògica budista (Pramanavada) · Advaita Vedanta
Teleologia vs. inevitabilitat estadística
Tant la teoria de la simulació com l'astrofísica moderna reconeixen l'extrema improbabilitat de l'ajustament fi de l'univers. No obstant això, divergeixen fonamentalment en la conclusió: una veu aquesta precisió com a prova d'un disseny d'enginyeria, mentre que l'altra descarta totalment el disseny, tractant la precisió com una inevitabilitat estadística (un efecte de selecció observacional) dins d'un vast multivers. Això determina si l'univers té un propòsit objectiu.
Astrofísica moderna · Teoria de la simulació
preguntes obertes
- L'experiència fenomenològica de l'Ésser Unitari Absolut (AUB) en neuroteologia apunta a una realitat ontològica objectiva, o és merament una adaptació evolutiva del lòbul parietal?
- Com es pot provar empíricament el concepte d'independència del substrat en la teoria de la simulació enfront del concepte d'originació depenent en la filosofia budista?
- Si la lògica modal estableix que un ésser màximament gran és lògicament possible, com pot la filosofia resoldre definicions mútuament excloents d' 'excel·lència màxima' a través de diferents marcs culturals?
etapa 5
fonts
dossier de recerca (8)
Alvin Plantinga modal ontological argument for the existence of God peer-reviewed papers
In the analytic philosophy of religion, the ontological argument for the existence of God was profoundly reinvigorated in the 20th century through the application of formal **modal logic**. This approach bypassed Immanuel Kant’s historical objection that "existence is not a predicate" by analyzing existence across hypothetical states of affairs. While the analytic tradition broadly acknowledges these modern modal formulations as formally valid, their soundness—specifically the premise that such a being is logically possible—remains heavily contested. The most prominent contemporary version is **Alvin Plantinga’s modal ontological argument**, comprehensively articulated in his 1974 text *The Nature of Necessity*. Building on the 11th-century foundation laid by St. Anselm, and refining earlier 20th-century models by Norman Malcolm and Charles Hartshorne, Plantinga framed his argument using **"possible worlds"** semantics. Plantinga introduces two distinctive concepts: **"maximal excellence"** (possessing omniscience, omnipotence, and moral perfection) and **"maximal greatness"**. According to Plantinga, a being has maximal greatness only if it possesses maximal excellence in *every* possible world. The argument essentially unfolds as follows: 1. It is logically possible that a maximally great being exists. 2. Therefore, there is a possible world in which a maximally great being exists. 3. By definition, a maximally great being must be maximally excellent in all possible worlds. 4. Therefore, a maximally great being exists in the actual world. Analytic philosophers largely agree that if the first premise is true, the conclusion logically follows under the axioms of S5 modal logic. Plantinga famously dubbed his formulation **"victorious,"** suggesting that "one can rational[ly] accept its conclusion on the basis of the argument". However, the analytic consensus is that the argument is not a definitive proof that forces an atheist to concede. Critics argue that conceivability does not automatically entail metaphysical possibility. Furthermore, critics deploy "reverse" parallel arguments, suggesting that if it is logically possible that a maximally great being does *not* exist, then it necessarily does not exist. Ultimately, within analytic philosophy, Plantinga's argument is viewed as a rigorous demonstration that belief in God is rationally permissible, rather than a standalone proof of God's existence.
cosmological fine-tuning argument and the anthropic principle in astrophysics
In modern physics and astrophysics, the cosmological fine-tuning argument highlights that the universe's fundamental physical constants—such as the gravitational constant, the cosmological constant, and the masses of elementary particles—fall within an unimaginably narrow and improbable range required for complex life to exist. While some traditions interpret this precision as evidence of a teleological designer, mainstream modern physics largely addresses this profound puzzle by combining the Anthropic Principle with the hypothesis of a multiverse. First formally introduced to modern cosmology by physicist Brandon Carter in the 1970s, the Anthropic Principle asserts that our physical observations must necessarily be compatible with the existence of the conscious observers making them. The discipline relies on distinctive terminology, differentiating the "Weak Anthropic Principle"—which acknowledges that our location in space and time is privileged by the conditions required for our evolution—from the "Strong Anthropic Principle," which posits that the universe must possess properties allowing life to develop. To avoid mere tautology, modern physicists combine anthropic reasoning with theories of cosmic inflation and the "string theory landscape," which provide a mechanism for generating endless universes with varying physical laws. Rather than our universe being uniquely tailored, physics reframes fine-tuning through an "observational selection effect". As Stephen Hawking and C.B. Collins characterized Carter's idea, the solution postulates an "infinite ensemble of universes with all possible initial conditions". Therefore, observers will naturally find themselves in the statistically rare universe capable of supporting them. Key figures like Leonard Susskind have championed this synthesis. Arguing against physicists who hope for a "theory of everything" with no free parameters, Susskind stated: "...it seems plausible that the landscape is unimaginably large and diverse. This is the behavior that gives credence to the anthropic principle". Groundational texts such as Barrow and Tipler's *The Anthropic Cosmological Principle* formalized these concepts, solidifying the modern astrophysical consensus that fine-tuning is less a miracle and more a natural byproduct of statistical selection across a vast multiverse.
Advaita Vedanta arguments for Brahman as the non-dual absolute reality
**Position of the Tradition** Advaita Vedanta, the most radical non-dualistic school of Hindu philosophy, posits that reality is singular and indivisible. Its central assertion is that *Brahman*—the absolute, infinite ground of all existence—is the sole reality. The perceived multiplicity of the physical universe and the individual's sense of an independent, separate self are considered an illusion. In this tradition, spiritual liberation (*moksha*) is not the attainment of a new state, but rather the profound recognition that the individual self (*Atman*) is entirely non-different from Brahman. **Distinctive Concepts and Terminology** The tradition relies on several foundational concepts to explain the mechanics of reality: * ***Sat-Chit-Ananda***: Brahman is defined not as a personal deity, but as pure existence (*sat*), consciousness (*chit*), and bliss (*ananda*). * ***Maya* and *Avidya***: Human beings experience a divided, material world due to *maya* (the veil of illusion) and *avidya* (ignorance). These forces cause pure awareness to over-identify with the body-mind complex as a separate ego or soul (*jiva*). * **Levels of Reality**: Advaita resolves the paradox of our everyday experience by delineating levels of truth. The empirical, transactional world (*vyavaharika*) appears real to the senses but ultimately resolves into the absolute, non-dual reality (*paramarthika*) upon awakening. **Key Figures and Texts** The arguments for non-duality are rooted in the *Prasthana Traya*—the three foundational texts of Vedanta: the *Upanishads*, the *Bhagavad Gita*, and the *Brahma Sutras*. The philosophy was initially systematized by the ancient sage Gaudapada and later famously consolidated by the 8th-century philosopher Adi Shankara. **Direct Quotes** Through scriptural study and deep self-inquiry, Advaita directs seekers toward the ultimate truth encapsulated in the Upanishadic *Mahavakyas* (great sayings), such as *"Tat Tvam Asi"* (You are That) and *"Aham Brahmasmi"* (I am Brahman). By piercing through *maya*, the seeker experiences the absolute oneness of reality—a state Adi Shankara described vividly: "I am other than name, form and action. My nature is ever free! I am Self, the supreme unconditioned Brahman. I am pure Awareness, always non-dual".
neurotheology and the neural correlates of mystical union with the divine
**Neurotheology**, or spiritual neuroscience, investigates the biological underpinnings of religious and spiritual phenomena. Rather than attempting to invalidate or "explain away" mystical experiences, the discipline aims to map the "neural correlates of the sacred"—the specific neurological networks and brain states that accompany profound transcendent events, such as a mystical union with the divine. A major consensus within contemporary neurotheology is the rejection of a singular "God spot" in the brain. For example, neuroscientist Mario Beauregard and V. Paquette used fMRI technology to scan the brains of Carmelite nuns as they relived their most profound experiences of *Unio Mystica* (the Christian notion of mystical union with God). Beauregard concluded that "there is no single God spot... These states are mediated by a neural network that is well distributed throughout the brain". The most prominent framework for understanding this sense of union comes from neuroscientist Andrew Newberg and psychiatrist Eugene d'Aquili, who conceptualized the state of "Absolute Unitary Being" (AUB). AUB is defined as a profound state in which there is a "complete loss of the sense of self, loss of the sense of space and time, and everything becomes an infinite, undifferentiated oneness". Through SPECT imaging of meditating monks and praying nuns, Newberg observed that achieving AUB correlates with intense activity in the prefrontal cortex (associated with focused attention) and a stark decrease in activity in the parietal lobes. Newberg refers to the parietal region as the brain's "Orientation Association Area" (OAA), which constantly processes sensory data to establish the boundary between the self and the external world. During moments of mystical union, decreased neural traffic to the OAA effectively dissolves the brain's spatial boundaries, generating a phenomenological experience of merging with the infinite. While earlier researchers like Michael Persinger attempted to artificially induce such feelings using electromagnetic stimulation of the temporal lobe (via his famous "God Helmet"), modern neurotheology largely characterizes mystical union as a complex, whole-brain shift. In this state, the brain actively "tunes out" the ordinary self and sensory filters to achieve a highly coherent sense of divine oneness.
arguments against a creator god in the Kalachakra Tantra and Buddhist logic
In Buddhism, the rejection of an eternal, omnipotent creator god (*Ishvara*) is a foundational philosophical position, vigorously defended in both formal Buddhist logic (*Pramanavada*) and esoteric texts like the *Kalachakra Tantra*. Rather than attributing the cosmos to divine creation, the Buddhist tradition anchors reality in dependent origination (*pratityasamutpada*) and the natural law of karma. Within Buddhist logic, the 7th-century philosopher Dharmakīrti provides one of the most systematic refutations of *Ishvara* in his *Pramāṇavārttika*. Dharmakīrti dismantles the theistic "argument from design" (often advanced by the Hindu Nyāya school) by exposing the logical contradictions of a permanent, unchanging creator generating a dynamic, temporary universe. He argues that a permanent entity is by definition incapable of causal interaction with the impermanent. If a deity acts to create, that deity undergoes change and is thus impermanent and subject to causation; as Dharmakīrti asks of the divine, "How, if an entity is a cause, can it also be a non-cause?". Furthermore, Buddhist logicians heavily invoke a moral argument: if a supreme creator exists, the prevalence of suffering and inequity would render that deity fundamentally cruel or conceptually absurd. Similarly, the 2nd-century philosopher Nāgārjuna dismantled the idea of a self-caused "First Cause," arguing that all phenomena lack independent essence (*svabhava*) and cannot be brought into existence from nothing. This stance is equally prominent in Vajrayana Buddhism. The *Kalachakra Tantra* (The Wheel of Time) and its principal commentary by Pundarika, the *Vimalaprabhā* ("Stainless Light"), explicitly refute the concept of a creator *Ishvara*. The *Kalachakra* system explains the origins of world systems through the complex interplay of collective karma and elemental winds, framing theistic deities not as literal external creators, but as "self-created metaphors for inner qualities" that practitioners visualize to purify the mind. By refuting a creator, both the *Vimalaprabhā* and Dharmakīrti's epistemological works reinforce core Buddhist soteriology: ultimate liberation (*nirvana*) is not granted by divine grace, but is achieved by directly realizing emptiness and severing personal ignorance.
simulation theory as a modern argument for a cosmic designer
The simulation hypothesis, rooted in information theory and digital physics, has inadvertently revived arguments for a cosmic designer within secular and scientific frameworks. By positing that physical reality is fundamentally a byproduct of information processing, this tradition frames the universe not as an undirected material accident, but as an artificially engineered system overseen by a higher intelligence. **Key Figures, Texts, and Experiments** The modern discourse stems from philosopher Nick Bostrom’s seminal 2003 paper outlining the "simulation argument." Bostrom proposed a trilemma suggesting that we almost certainly live in an "ancestor simulation" run by an advanced "posthuman" civilization. Transhumanist philosopher David Pearce famously described Bostrom's thesis as "the first interesting argument for the existence of a Creator in 2000 years". Recent empirical attempts to validate this include the work of physicist Melvin Vopson, who studies information and entropy to argue that the universe's behavior points to a simulated reality. Similarly, NASA's Rich Terrile supports the theory by observing that the universe is mathematically finite: "Space is quantized, matter is quantized, energy is quantized, everything is made of individual pixels". **Distinctive Concepts and Terminology** The intersection of information theory and design relies on "substrate-independence"—the assumption that consciousness and reality are purely functional patterns of information that can run on any computational medium. Within this framework, the hypothesized "Simulator" effectively functions as a deity. As Terrile notes, "What are the requirements for God? He’s an inter-dimensional being, connected with everything in the Universe, a creator... The definition is awfully close to what computer programmers do". This crossover has even spawned hybrid theological frameworks like "Simulation Creationism," which formally posits that God is a programmer and "God's Divine power may be an advanced supercomputer". Ultimately, while traditional intelligent design often necessitates supernatural intervention, the simulation hypothesis provides a technological mechanism for a designed universe. It effectively repackages the concept of an omnipotent creator into the modern guise of a cosmic software engineer.
Sufi concept of Wahdat al-Wujud and the manifest presence of God
In Islamic mysticism (Sufism), *Wahdat al-Wujud*—which translates to the "Unity of Existence" or "Oneness of Being"—is the profound ontological doctrine that God is the only true, absolute reality. The tradition posits that the created universe is not a separate, independent entity. Rather, all forms and creatures within the cosmos are merely the manifest presence and self-disclosure of a singular divine reality. The doctrine is fundamentally attributed to the 13th-century Andalusian mystic and philosopher Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi. Although modern scholarship confirms Ibn 'Arabi did not personally coin the exact phrase *Wahdat al-Wujud*—the terminology was later codified by his followers and frequently utilized by critics like Ibn Taymiyyah—the concept flawlessly captures the theology mapped out in his foundational texts, most notably the *Fusus al-Hikam* (Bezels of Wisdom) and *Al-Futuhat al-Makkiyah* (The Meccan Revelations). A distinctive conceptual hallmark of this framework is the relationship between absolute existence (*wujud*) and contingent, existing things (*mawjūdāt*). To explain how the "One" appears as the "Many," Sufi metaphysics frequently employs the metaphor of mirrors: diverse creations are fundamentally different mirrors reflecting the exact same Divine Source. Within this discipline, finding God is not a physical process of two separate entities merging, but an epistemic realization that one's independent existence is an illusion, as only God truly exists. Ibn 'Arabi captures the essence of this manifest presence in his *Kitāb al-Jalāla*, stating unequivocally: "Thus the whole of existence is in reality one, and there is nothing beside it". In the 69th chapter of the *Fusus al-Hikam*, he elaborates on how this omnipresence relates to spiritual practice: "God is existence and that which exists, and it is He who is worshipped in every worshiper and in everything, and He is the existence of everything". Ultimately, this doctrine teaches that recognizing the manifest presence of God requires seeing past the veil of worldly multiplicity to behold the underlying Unity of Being.
Zohar description of Ein Sof and the emergence of the sefirot
In the Jewish mystical tradition of Kabbalah, the foundational text is the *Zohar* (The Book of Splendor). Attributed to the 2nd-century sage Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai but published in 13th-century Spain by Moses de Leon, the *Zohar* provides a profound metaphysical framework to explain how a finite universe could emerge from an infinite God. **Ein Sof and Ayin** Kabbalah posits that the ultimate, pre-creation reality of God is *Ein Sof* (literally "Without End" or "The Infinite"). Because *Ein Sof* transcends all human comprehension and physical limitations, the *Zohar* sometimes refers to it as *Ayin* ("Nothingness" or "Non-existent")—not signifying a void, but rather a divine fullness so absolute that it escapes all language and form. Detailing this primordial state, the *Zohar* states: *"Before He gave any shape to the world, before He produced any form, He was alone, without form and without resemblance to anything else"*. **The Emergence of the Sefirot** Because the infinite light (*Ohr Ein Sof*) is overwhelmingly intense, the Infinite had to emanate intermediate channels to create and sustain a finite cosmos. God emanated ten *Sefirot*—divine attributes, realms, or "vessels" of light. These ten traits (which include *Chokhmah* [wisdom], *Chesed* [loving-kindness], and *Gevurah* [severity/restraint]) serve as the spiritual infrastructure of reality. Later figures, notably the 16th-century mystic Isaac Luria, built upon this by introducing the concept of *Tzimtzum* (divine contraction), explaining that *Ein Sof* had to actively withdraw its infinite light to make conceptual "space" for the *Sefirot* and subsequent creation to exist. The *Sefirot* act as a bridge between the unknowable Creator and the material world. Kabbalists are careful to emphasize that the *Sefirot* are not separate gods, but unified extensions of God's own essence. The *Tikkunei Zohar* elegantly captures this paradox of divine unity and emanation: *"You are He who has brought forth ten 'garments,' and we call them ten Sefirot... and inasmuch as You are within them, whoever separates one from another of these ten Sefirot, it is considered as if he had effected a separation in You"*. Ultimately, this tradition teaches that while *Ein Sof* remains forever hidden, its energy continuously cascades through the *Sefirot*, allowing humanity to perceive, interact with, and dynamically influence the divine balance without being annihilated by absolute infinity.